Absolute (ruling) monarchy

In an absolute or ruling monarchy the monarch governs rather than reigns. The ruler is head of state and usually head of government, appoints ministers and advisory councils, may legislate by decree, and succession is determined within a ruling family. This distinguishes it from constitutional and parliamentary monarchies such as Norway or Japan, where an elected parliament governs.

Early modern European absolutism, defended by writers such as Jean Bodin and Thomas Hobbes, concentrated sovereignty in the crown. Michael Herb (1999) argued that the surviving Gulf monarchies are distinctive 'dynastic monarchies', in which members of the ruling family occupy the key ministries and collectively choose the ruler, giving the family a shared stake in regime survival. Victor Menaldo argues that monarchic political culture helps rulers make credible commitments to elites, which reduces instability; Sean Yom and F. Gregory Gause instead attribute monarchic resilience to cross-cutting coalitions, hydrocarbon wealth and foreign patronage.

Saudi Arabia's Basic Law of Governance (1992) declares the system of government monarchical, confines succession to the sons and grandsons of the founder, King Abdulaziz (Article 5), and makes the King the ultimate source of the judicial, executive and organisational powers (Article 44). The Consultative (Shura) Council is appointed, not elected, and political parties are not permitted. Oil revenue allows public services and employment without a personal income tax on citizens, a feature analysed by the theory of the rentier state.

• Saudi Arabia, Oman, Qatar and the seven emirates of the UAE; Kuwait and Bahrain mix royal power with elected chambers.
• Brunei, where the Sultan has ruled under emergency powers since 1962.
• Eswatini, where the King appoints the prime minister and parties do not contest elections.
• Vatican City is an elective absolute monarchy with a religious ruler (see theocracy).

Ruling monarchies restrict speech, association and religious freedom, and some use the death penalty extensively. In 2019 a UN special rapporteur concluded that the 2018 killing of the journalist Jamal Khashoggi in the Saudi consulate in Istanbul was a deliberate, premeditated execution for which the Saudi state was responsible.

Supporters point to stability, long planning horizons and high public provision in wealthy monarchies. Critics note that these depend on resource rents and foreign security guarantees, that succession disputes within the family are a recurrent risk, and that citizens have no institutional way to change rulers or policy.

No Arab monarchy fell during the uprisings of 2011, while several republics did. Comparative data rank ruling monarchies among the most durable autocracies, though the twentieth century also saw many monarchies overthrown, including in Egypt (1952), Iraq (1958), Libya (1969) and Iran (1979).