Polity Atlas
Research theme ·

Alternative governance

Ways of organising authority beyond the conventional nation-state: polycentric law, voluntary communities, charter cities, network states and commons.

Open questions

Each question gathers claims, sources and counter-claims.
  1. 01

    Which functions of the state can be unbundled?

    Law, security, identity, public goods and membership: which can be provided by other institutions, and which still need a territorial enforcer?

    Hypothesis
  2. 02

    When does exit discipline power, and when does it fail?

    Voting with one's feet assumes cheap mobility and good information. Real communities show where those assumptions break.

    Hypothesis
  3. 03

    What makes self-governing communities last?

    Commons research suggests clear boundaries, local rules, monitoring and conflict resolution. Do the same principles hold for digital and non-territorial communities?

    Hypothesis

Mechanisms in scope

Redistribution and accountability designs that become relevant if labour stops being the economy's main factor.

Compare them in the Explorer →
MechanismApproval votingA voting method in which each voter may approve of as many candidates as they wish and the candidate with the most approvals wins. Used in city elections in Fargo (2020–2024) and St. Louis (since 2021).MechanismArbitrationParties submit a dispute to one or more privately chosen arbitrators whose award is binding.MechanismCondorcet methodsRanked-ballot voting methods that elect the candidate who beats every rival in head-to-head majority comparisons, when one exists, and differ in how they resolve cycles. Used mainly in organisations such as the Debian Project.MechanismExit rightsThe guaranteed ability of members to leave a polity or organisation, ideally with defined treatment of their assets and obligations.MechanismFutarchyRobin Hanson's proposal: vote on values, bet on beliefs — elected bodies define a welfare measure, prediction markets choose policies expected to raise it.MechanismHarberger taxOwners self-assess the value of their property, pay tax on that value and must sell to anyone who offers it.MechanismInitiative and referendumTools of direct legislation: a citizen initiative puts proposals to a public vote by petition, and a referendum lets voters approve or reject measures. Central in Switzerland and many US states.MechanismMixed-member proportional representation (MMP)Voters cast a local-candidate vote and a party vote; list seats top up parties so total seats match the party vote. Used in Germany's Bundestag and New Zealand, which adopted it by referendum in 1993.MechanismQuadratic fundingA matching rule for public goods: projects receive matching funds that grow with the number of distinct contributors, not just the amount.MechanismQuadratic votingVoters spend voice credits to cast votes; n votes on one issue cost n² credits, letting people express how strongly they care.MechanismRanked-choice voting (instant-runoff)Voters rank candidates; the lowest-placed candidate is eliminated round by round and ballots transfer until one has a majority. Used for Australia's House of Representatives, Maine, Alaska and New York City primaries.MechanismRecall electionA procedure by which voters can remove an elected official before the end of the term, usually after a petition and a popular vote. Governors were recalled in North Dakota (1921) and California (2003); Newsom survived in 2021.MechanismSingle transferable vote (STV)A proportional method for multi-member districts: voters rank candidates, those reaching a quota win, and surplus or eliminated votes transfer. Constitutionally required for Ireland's Dáil; used for the Australian Senate.MechanismSortition / citizens' assemblyA body of citizens selected by lot, usually stratified to reflect the population, who learn, deliberate and recommend.MechanismVoluntary taxationFunding collective services through contributions that members choose whether to make.