Idea
Each voter has two votes: one for a local constituency candidate and one for a party. Constituency winners take seats; party-list seats compensate so that each party's total roughly matches its share of party votes.
Theory
MMP seeks to combine the geographic link of single-member districts with proportional outcomes. Thresholds limit fragmentation, and "overhang" arises when a party wins more constituencies than its party-vote share entitles it to.
Real examples
- Germany: the Bundestag uses a personalised proportional system. A 2023 reform capped it at 630 seats and ended overhang and levelling seats. The Federal Constitutional Court on 30 July 2024 upheld that core but ruled the 5% threshold as written unconstitutional.
- New Zealand: a Royal Commission recommended MMP in 1986. A 1992 indicative referendum and a 1993 binding referendum (53.9% for MMP) led to its first use at the 1996 election; in 2011 voters chose to keep it.
Critique
Two types of member (constituency and list) may differ in status, party leaders control list order, and coalition formation can be lengthy. Overhang seats enlarged the Bundestag before the 2023 reform, and thresholds exclude small parties.
Results
MMP has lasted in both countries. Its effect on government stability and representation is debated; coalition government is the norm.
Claims
New Zealand adopted MMP after a 1986 Royal Commission recommendation, a 1992 indicative referendum (70.5% preferred MMP among alternatives) and a 1993 binding referendum (53.9% MMP, 46.1% first-past-the-post). It was first used on 12 October 1996 and retained in 2011 (57.8% keep).[1][2][3]
Germany's 2023 electoral reform limited the Bundestag to 630 seats and made constituency wins count only if covered by the party's second votes. The Federal Constitutional Court upheld that on 30 July 2024 but found the 5% threshold, as written, unconstitutional.[1][2]
Revision history
- 2026-10-23rev 1 — Seed import