How each model solves the same problems
Instead of “democracy versus anarchism”, compare the concrete ways collective problems get solved.
| Question | ✕ | ✕ | ✕ | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| How are decisions made? | Open village assemblies of adults, dominated by men, seeking consensus; councils of lineage elders holding the ofo; title societies; women's assemblies for women's affairs and markets.Popular assembly | A statutory authority (UIDAI) under the central government sets rules; ministries decide where Aadhaar is required; Parliament legislated in 2016 and 2019.Digital identity | Unknown | |
| How are conflicts resolved? | Escalation from family to lineage, elders, assembly and oracles; oaths and ordeals; fines, ostracism and collective shaming such as 'sitting on a man'. | Grievance channels at UIDAI and service agencies; constitutional challenges in the Supreme Court, which ruled in 2017 and 2018. | Unknown | |
| How are public goods funded? | Paths, markets, shrines and defence supplied by age grades and communal labour; land allocated by lineages. | A universal, low-cost proof of identity used for welfare transfers, financial inclusion and public services. | Unknown | |
| How is AI used? | None; a pre-colonial polity. | No AI in decision-making as such; automated biometric matching and deduplication decide authentication, and face authentication was added in 2018. | Unknown | |
| What are the main risks? | Exclusion and stigma (slaves, osu), oracle abuse and slave trading, limited capacity above the village-group, and conquest by a centralised colonial state.CLM-0390 | Exclusion through authentication failures, data leaks, surveillance and profiling, weak independent oversight and function creep.CLM-0544 | Unknown |
This illustrates differences in design; it is not a universal claim about outcomes. Each cell links to mechanisms and the claims behind them.